Aas_Study

Colour blindness It is a condition in which a person is unable to identify one or more colours. Incidence Male : it present about in 8% male. Female : it present about 0.4% female. Causes Injury to retina. Disease of retina. Inherited disease Types Monochromatism Dichromatism Trichromatism Monochromatism It is a rare condition in which a person is unable to identity any colour vision is similar to black and white photograph and everything looks grey. Types Rod monochromatism Cone menochromatism Dichromatism In this condition person can identify only two basic colours. Types Protanopia / Primary dichromatism - Unable to identify red colour. Deuteranopia / Secondary dichromatism - Unable to identify green colour. Tritanopia / Tertiary diachromatism - Unable to identify blue colour. Trichromatism In this condition person can identify all three in colours but the intensity of one of primary colour can not identify properly. Types Pr

Regulation of blood sugar level Glucose is the ultimate source of energy to our body so amount of sugar in blood should be maintained in normal range. Any condition when increase blood sugar level is known as hyperglycemia ( above 140 mg/dl in fasting condition ), which may result from disease like diabetes mellitus. Any condition when blood sugar level decrease  called hypoglycemia ( below 55 mg/dl in fasting condition ), which may cause multiple symptoms and even may cause death. Control blood sugar level through hormones 1. Insulin It secrets from beta cells of islets of pancreas. It decrease blood sugar level by... Gluconeogenesis : it decrease gluconeogenesis. Glycogenesis : it increase the glycogenesis. 2. Adrenaline It secret from adrenal glands. It increases the blood sugar level by... Gluconeogenesis : it increase gluconeogenesis. Glycogenesis : it decrease glycogenesis. 3. Nor adrenaline It secret from adrenal gland. It increase blood sugar

Hyperglycemia ( Diabetes Mellitus ) It is the condition which is characterized by increase level of sugar in blood that is... 1. Fasting level is more then 140 mg /dl 2. After meal the blood sugar level is more than 200 mg /dl While normal blood sugar level is In fasting condition : 70 - 110 mg/dl After meal : 140 mg/dl Symptoms Hyperglycemia ( increase blood sugar level ) Glucosuria ( presence of sugar in urine ) Polyuria ( frequent urination ) Polydipsia ( increase thirst ) Muscles wasting ( muscle dysfunction )  Complications Development of atheroma ( degeneration of wall of the arteries due to fatty deposit and scar tissue ) Nephropathy ( kidney disease or damage ) Retinopathy ( any damage of retina of the eye ) Types of diabetes mellitus 1. IDDM ( Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus ) It occurs due to the absence of insulin or non functioning of beta cells. 2. Non IDDM ( Non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus ) In this disease insulin are present

Hypoglycemia It is the condition which is characterized by decrease amount of sugar in blood that is... less than 55 mg/dl While normally blood sugar level is... In fasting condition : 70 - 110 mg/dl After meal : 140 mg/dl Symptoms Sweating Palpitation Giddiness ( a sensation of whirling and tendency to fall ) Confusion Convulsion ( a sudden violent movement of the body that you can not control ) Comma ( death of brain )

Cerebrospinal fluid or CSF CSF is the modified colour less tissue fluid. CSF present in ventricular system of brain and sub arachnoid space around spinal cord and brain. Formation Maximum part of CSF is formed by choroid plexus of lateral ventricle, and lesser part of CSF  is formed by third and fourth ventricles. Some part of CSF  is also formed by capillaries present surface of spinal cord. Quantity                 : 150 ml Rate of formation : 0.3ml / min Reaction                 : Alkaline Specific gravity     : 1.005 Coagulation           : It does not coagulate in standing Pressure exerted  in man by CSF, varies in different position... Lateral recumbent position : 10 - 18 cm of water Lying position                         : 13 cm of water Sitting position                        : 30 cm of water Composition of CSF 1. Water - 99.13 % 2. Solids - 0.87% A. Organic substances Proteins          : 20-30 mg / dl Amino acids   : 10 -30 mg / dl Sugar       

Parkinson's disease or Parkinsonism Parkinson's disease was discovered by James Parkinson. Name of this disease are given on the name of it's discoverer. This disease are also called Paralysis Agitates. Parkinsons disease occurs due to damage of basal ganglia. It is mostly due to the destruction of substantial nigra and nigro-strial pathway, which has dopaminergic fibers. Causes Injury to basal ganglia Cerebral arteriosclerosis Viral infection of brain like encephalitis Symptoms Rigidity of muscles Tremors Akinesia or hyperkinesia Abnormal gait Emotional changes Treatment Parkonism disease is due to the damage of dopaminergic fibers, so it's treated by dopamine.

Organ of CORTI Organ of corti is the organ receptor for hearing. It is the neuro epithelial structure in cochlea. It rest's upon the  lip of osseous spiral lamina and the basilar membrane. it extent's through the cochlear duct, except for a short distance on either end. The organ of corti is made up of sensory elements called the hear cells. All the cells of organ of corti are arranged in order from center to towards the periphery of cochlea. Border cells Inner hair cells Inner hair phalange cells Inner pillar cells Outer pillar cells Outer phalange cells Outer hair cells Cells of Hansen Cells of Dandies Tectorial membrane and lamina reticularis.

Loss of speech or Aphasia Aphasia is defined as the loss or impairment of speech due to the brain damage. It is an acquired disorder and it is distinct from developmental disorder of speech. Aphasia is not due to the paralysis of muscles of articulation. Cause Damage to the speech centers, which are situated in cerebral cortex. Reasons of the damage of speech center Stroke Head injury Cerebral tumors Brain infections Types of Aphasia Broca's aphasia Wernicke's aphasia Glossal aphasia Anomic aphasia

Cubital fossa Cubital  ( latin cubitus, elbow ) fossa. Cubital fossa is the homologus with the popliteal fossa. It is triangular hollow shape. Location Located on the superior surface of the elbow joint in between arm and forearm. Boundaries Laterally  - Brachioradialis Medially  - Lateral border of pronator teres Base          - Imaginary line between two epicondyle of humerus ( it is directed upward ). Apex         - Where brachioradialis crosses the pronator muscle ( it is directed downwards ). Roof          -  Skin, superficial fascia, deep fascia and bicipital aponeurosis. Floor        - Brachialis and supinator muscles. Boundaries of the right cubital fossa Contents Median nerve, brachial artery, biceps brachi and radial nerve. Applied anatomy Median cubital vein is use for intravenous injection.  Blood pressure record by auscultating method from brachial artery. Determine any abnormalities of the elbow joint like supracondylar fract

Superior vena cava Superior vena cava is a large venous channel which collects blood from the upper half of the body and drain into the right atrium. Superior vena cava is about 7cm long. It is formed by the union of the right and left brachiocephalic or innominate veins. It begins behind the lower border of the first right costal cartilage close to the sternum. It terminates by the opening into the upper part of the right atrium behind the third right costal cartilage. It has no valves. Superior vena cava and it's relations Relations Anterior Chest wall. Internal thoracic vessels. Anterior margin of the right lung and pleura. The vessel is covered by pericardium in its lower half. Posterior Trachea Right vagus Root of the right lung Medial Ascending aorta Brachiocephalic artery Lateral Right phrenic nerve and vessels Right pleura and lung Tributaries of the superior vena cava Azygos vein ( at the level of second costal cartilage ).

Test for bilirubin / bile pigment in urine ( Fouchet's test ) Bilirubin is breakdown product of haemoglobin. Normally no bilirubin passed in urine. Apparatus Test tube, 10% barium chloride, filter paper, dropper, fouchet's reagent, urine. Principal Oxidises bilirubin convert into green biliverdin with the help of ferric chloride. Procedure Take 10ml of urine in a test tube. Add 3 -5 ml 10% barium chloride. Filter through filter paper. To precipitate on filter paper, add a few drops of fouchet's reagent.  Fouchet's reagent = Ferric chloriode + Trichloroacetic acid Result Development of green colour indicates bilirubin. Causes of bilirubinuria Obstructive jaundice Hepatocellular jaundice. 

Test for bile salts ( Hay's test ) Apparatus Test tube (capacity 50 or 100ml), Sulphur powder, urine. Principle If bile salts present in urine lower the surface tension of the urine. Procedure Test tube fill  2/3 with urine. Sprinkle finely sulphur powder over it. Hay's test Results If bile salts present in urine then sulphur powder sinks, otherwise floats. Cause for bile salts in urine Obstructive jaundice

Test for ketonuria ( Rothera's test ) Apparatus Test tube, Urine, Solid ammonium sulfate salt, Sodium nitroprusside, liquor ammonia. Principle Ketone bodies combine with alkaline solution of sodium nitroprusside formed purple complex. Procedure Take 5ml urine in a test tube. Saturate it with solid ammonium salt, it will start settling to the bottom of the tube when it saturated. Add a few crystals of sodium nitroprusside and shake. Add liquor ammonia in test tube with the side of the inner wall. Rothera's test Results Appearance of the purple coloured ring at the junction indicates presence of ketone bodies. Causes of ketonuria Diabetes ketoacidosis Dehydration Hyperemesis gravidarum Fever Cachexia After general anaesthesia

Test for glucosuria ( Benedict's reagent test ) Glucosuria is define is the excretion of sugar in urine. Apparatus Benedict's reagent, Test tube, Urine, Lighter, Candle, Principle Cupric ion reduced by glucose to cuprous oxide and a coloured precipitate is formed. Procedure In test tube take 5ml of benedict's reagent. Add 8 drops or 0.5 ml urine. Heat to boiling for two minutes. Cool in water bath or running tap water. Than look for colour change and precipitation. Benedict's test Results Normally 130 mg / day glucose comes out with urine. Blue colour (no change colour ) = Negative Greenish colour                          = Traces ( less than 0.5 g /day ). Green / cloudy green ppt            = + ( 0.5 - 1 g/dl ). Yellow ppt                                  = ++ ( 1-1.5 g / dl ). Orange ppt                                  = +++ ( 1.5 - 2 g / 100ml ). Brick ppt                                     = ++++ ( more than 2 g / dl ). Semi

Test for proteinuria (Test for protein in urine ) / Heat and acetic acid test Apparatus  Test tube, Acetic acid, Candle, Lighter, Test tube holder, Dropper, Urine. Principle Heat causes coagulation of protein. Procedure Take 5ml test tube. Fill 2/3 with urine. Now acidify urine by the adding a few drops of 3% acetic acid, if urine is alkaline. Boil upper portion for two minutes ( boil upper portion because it can compare with the lower portion ). If turbidity appears, add a few drops of 3% acetic acid Test for proteinuria Results If present... No cloudiness                             = Negative Faint cloudiness                          = Traces ( less than 0.1 g/dl ). Cloudiness without granularity   = + ( 0.1 g /100ml ). Granular cloudiness                     = ++ ( 0.1 - 0.2 g / 100ml ). Precipitation and flocculation      = +++ ( 0.2 -0.4 g/100ml ). Thick solid precipitation              = ++++ ( more than 0.5 g/100ml ). Causes Normally less

Stomach Definition The stomach is the muscular bag it is the widest and most distensible part of alimentary canal.This is the part of the digestive system. In this article we are discussing  about these topics... Synonym Location Shape Measurement Functions of stomach Presenting part Relations of the stomach Parts of the stomach Gastric triangle Cellular structure Glandular structure Gastric secretions Blood supply Lymphatic drainage Nerve supply Applied anatomy Synonym Gaster, Venter, Temporary, reserve wire of food, Widest part of alimentary  canal. Location Epigastric region , Umblical region , Left hypochondric region , Left lumbar region . Shape Somewhat J shape or sthenic Hyper sthenic - possibility of duodenal ulcer. Hypo sthenic - possibility of gastric ulcer. Measurement Length of stomach - 25cm Capacity - in adult - solid 1kg and liquid 2 liter ( average - 1.5 kg ) in infants - 30 ml average Functions of stomach